Citations

Why should you cite a source?  Citations are required for several reasons, not the least of which is to give proper credit to those whose ideas and research you are using in your own work.  Citations also provide an ‘index’ of your work, and allow the readers of your paper to retrace your footsteps in their own work; such assistance is a cornerstone of academic research.  Finally, proper citations allow your readers to gauge the depth and breadth of your research and evaluate your conclusions accordingly.

When should you cite a source?  In the following cases:

1. Anytime you quote directly from a source,
2. Anytime you use someone else’s idea or original interpretation of a set of facts, even if rewritten in your own words (paraphrasing or an indirect quotation),
3. To indicate the source of information that is not common knowledge.  Common knowledge is information provided in your textbook, is a well-known fact, or can be found in several sources.
4. To reference additional discussion of a topic not covered in your paper.  This is the ‘see also’ case:  though not relevant to your thesis specifically, and so not discussed in the body of your paper, you may uncover in your research information of additional use to your reader.

In general, a citation refers to a source listed in full on the bibliography and makes specific reference to the page number on which the information you are using can be found.

You may choose to use either footnotes or endnotes.  Footnotes are often easier on the reader:  it is necessary only to look to the ‘foot’ of the page to check a citation, not to turn to the end of a paper or book.  This enables your reader to quickly and conveniently locate sources in your bibliography.  Most word processing programs, including Microsoft Word, have footnote/endnote commands that make using and keeping track of citations very easy.  Take the time to learn how to use the footnote/endnote command.

With a proper bibliography attached to your paper, you need only refer to the author and the appropriate page(s) in a citation:

1. Smith, 37-8.

Often, you will cite the same source several times in succession.  It is appropriate in such instances to use the Latin “ibid.”, which is short for ibidem, meaning “in the same place”:

1. Smith, 37-8.
2. Ibid.,  96.
3. Ibid., 105.

If a different source is cited in the midst of several successive citations from the same source, it is necessary to refer specifically to the original source before the use of “ibid.” again:

1. Smith,  37-8.
2. Ibid., 96.
3. Keynes, 23.
4. Smith, 105.

If more than one source from a single author is cited, than it is necessary to differentiate between the two by including the title of the work (you may abbreviate the title):

1. John Maynard Keynes, The Economic Consequences of the Peace, 15-6.

2. John Maynard Keynes, A Revision of the Treaty, 114.

Commonly, you will reference a speech or other primary document, or even a secondary work, which has been reprinted or quoted in another source.  It is necessary to both identify the original source and the secondary source with which you are working:

1. Abraham Lincoln as quoted in Barnes, 280.


Bibliographies

All History Department papers should include a bibliography of sources used in the completion of the paper.  This bibliography may appear on the last page of your paper.

Below you will find examples of most of the different kinds of sources you will use in preparing a history paper at Westminster School.

[book with one author]
Caillaux, Joseph.  The Political Consequences of the Peace.  Paris:  Notre Dame Press, 1923.

[article in a magazine or book, collection of essays, or a  journal; note use of ‘_____’ to reference same author as above.  The title of a magazine or journal is underlined; a book is italicized.]
__________.  "Economics and Politics in Europe," Foreign Affairs:  An American Quarterly Review.  Vol. 1, no. 2, December 15, 1922.

Cohen, Benjamin J.  "A Brief History of International Monetary Relations," International Political Economy:  Perspectives on Global Power and Wealth.  New York:  St. Martin's Press, 1987.

[more than one author]
Barnes, Mary L. and James Yankowitz.  History of the Western World.  London:  Lancaster Press, Ltd., 1990.

[a document or previously published work found in a collection assembled by an editor]
Lincoln, Abraham.  "Gettysburg Address," November 19, 1863.  Reprinted in Houston, James C., editor.  Sourcebook in United States History.  New York:  American Heritage Custom Publishing Group, 1994.

[book translated from one language to another]
Danzel, Johann.  African Colonialism in the 18th Century.  Translated by Donald Young.  Westport, CT:  Greenwood Press, 1991.

[an encyclopedia; when the author is known include it, if not, begin with the title of the entry]
Freedman, Aaron D., MD.  "Foot Disorders."  Academic American Encyclopedia, Vol. 8.  Danbury, CT:  Grolier, Inc., 1993.

[newspaper articles, if author’s name is known, begin there, if not begin with the title of the article]
"Nation, State, and Economy:  Contributions to the Politics and History of Our Time."  The New York Times November 3, 1994.

[unpublished speech, lecture, or interview]
Briggs, Peter.  Lecture, “Choice-Maximization in Conditions of Scarcity:  an Alternative Interpretation.”  Westminster School, Simsbury, CT.  November 7, 1994.

Student, Jane Q. Recorded interview with William Philip, Associate Headmaster and Teacher, Westminster School, Simsbury, CT.  Westminster School Library:  Tape No. 1278, November 7, 1994.

[photograph, painting, or other work of art reproduced in a book]
Michelangelo Buonarotti.  Sculpture.  “David.”  Photograph in George M. Simpson.  History of Art.  New York:  Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1993.  [n.b. if viewing the actual work, you need only reference the artist, title, location, and date observed.]

[CD-Rom]
Swarthout, Samuel.  "Tariff Policies and Customs Collections."  The Software Toolworks, CD-ROM Series:  Multimedia Encyclopedia Version 1PB.  Grolier, Inc., Catalog No. 2195810-590201/1062.

[audio or video/DVD recording]
Thomas, Dylan.  "Fern Hill," Dylan Thomas Reading.  Caedmon, TC 1002, 1957.  Audiocassette.

[Internet source; if author is known begin there, if not begin with title of the article]
Llama, Dolly.  “Turmoil in Tibet.”  Stanford University.  Internet address:  http://www.ingress.com/tibet.html.  June 8, 1995.  [n.b. include the author, title, and institution supporting the web site if available, but most importantly the date the site was visited.]

Important note regarding the use of Internet sources:  you may not use an Internet source unless you first check the academic integrity of your source with your teacher, or failing that another Westminster faculty member.


Miscellany and Style Points:

When in doubt, choose the footnote default settings in Microsoft Word (or in your own word processing software; most have citations commands).  These settings will usually default to a 10 point font for footnotes or endnotes, as opposed to the 12 point font that should be used for the text of the paper.  (Note:  A 12 point font and standard one-inch margins is appropriate for the double-spaced body of a paper.)  Automatically, using the ‘Footnote’ command, Word will superscript the citation number in your text, number your citations (and maintain proper numbering, if you later choose to insert additional citations) and establish appropriate paragraph parameters in the footnote or endnote sections.  It is best to allow Word to number your citations for you.  Learn to use the ‘Footnote’ command properly.

A quotation or a block of material cited that occupies four (4) or more lines of standard, double-spaced text, or consists of more than forty (40) words, should be set off as a separate paragraph, indented one-half inch from both margins, and single-spaced.  You should also choose the next smaller font size (the standard is 10 point, used here) than that for the regular text (the standard is 12 point, used here.)

Take care to use proper punctuation, spacing, and the appropriate abbreviations.  Errors, sometimes misleading, are often errors in punctuation.  Take the time to complete your citations properly.

Occasionally, it may be appropriate to include a brief summary of your source's research and conclusions in the citation itself, rather than in the text of your paper.  If the data is too substantial to allow inclusion in a citation, an appendix may be used instead; the appendix then would be referenced in the citation (e.g. "Please see Appendix I").